Hi Parvinder,
I have gone through the history books again and found that maitraks were Gujjars only. It is stated in historical records that Harshvardhan attacked the maitrak king of Gujarat and It was another Gujjar King Dadda who helped the Maitrak king. Due to this help the Harshvardhan the king of Kannuaj not only could not win that war against Maitraks but gave his daughter also in marriage. Thanks to the timely help provided by the fellow Gujjar King Dadda.
However Raja Dahir of Punjab was a brahmin. See the following record.
wadi-kayani.blogspot.com/2004/12/spread-of-islam-in-india.htmlInvasion and Rule
Invasion, conquest and rule was also a major determining factor in the spread of Islam in India. A look into the history of the spread of Islam in India we see differing processes which affected its spread.
There have been a variety of reasons as to why the Arab Muslim armies began invasions into India. One of the biggest misconceptions is that before a Muslim soldier set foot in India there was no contact with the people of that region. However very early on in Muslim history there was a contact between people of the Indian subcontinent and Arabia. One such contact was through the wars the Arabs Muslims fought with the Persian Empire. The Persian armies sometimes had Indian soldiers as reinforcements and when in the Persian armies were defeated many of these Indian soldiers were brought into Arab society. Arab Muslims were aware of this alliance between the Persian Empire and North Indian territories. Furthermore Indian forces had participated in various battles against the Arabs, some of which include the battle of Nehawand and Salasal. Secondly when the Muslims had overthrown the Persian Empire, some of their leaders had fled to Indian territory, and the ruling power of the Indian territory refused to give them up to the Muslims. Finally, well established trade routes which had been running for many years to the south of India were being attacked by pirates to which the rulers of the Sindh region in the North of India were forfeiting their responsibility.
According to K.S. Lal, the first Muslim army was dispatched at Thana in 636 AD under the command of the Governor of Bahrain. During the Caliphate of Umar a unit was sent by land to modern day Balouchistan. During the Caliphate of Usman, Hakim bin Jabala was sent to India in 650 AD, and in 665 AD a Muslim army entered India under the command of Muhlib bin Sufra who entered through the Khyber Pass. These were all smaller incursions, which resulted in victories and losses for various reasons. In many cases although these incursions would have helped the spread of Islam in India, this help would have been short lived. For example when the Governor of Iraq sent an army under the command of Rabi bin Ziad Haris Balouchistan was conquered and came under Muslim control. However a local uprising caused the Muslims to be pushed out and defeated and that territory came under Indian rule again. In some ways, one can argue that these incursions only exposed the people to Islam, or even one facet of Islam, but it didn’t have the lasting effect of the traders or the Sufis. According to Ezzati,
“Fanatacism may serve as a means to force an ideological system or a doctrine on some people temporarily”
It can be seen that this was most probably the case during these early incursions, it probably hindered the spread of Islam because unlike the traders and Sufis who came later, allowed for prejudices and myths to develop about a blood thirsty and violent religion, some of which are still prevalent in literature today. The next major invasion was more successful in some ways than the previous invasions. The area of Debal was a highly strategic point in terms of trade, the area was a place where ships from southern India, China and Oman met, filled with goods. Obviously this region was prone to attacks from pirates, one such attack prompted a response from the Governor of Iraq, Hajjaj bin Yusuf.
“The king of Ceylon had sent to Hajjaj bin Yusuf Sakafi, the governor of the eastern provinces of the Caliphate, eight vessels filled with presents, Abyssinian slaves, pilgrims, and the orphan daughters of some Muslim merchants who had died in his dominions, but the vessels were attacked and plundered by pirates off the coast of Sind.”
As a result Hajjaj demanded compensation and the return of the orphaned women, however the ruler of Sindh claimed no responsibility for the action. Hajjaj therefore launched an invasion of the region, the Muslims received two crushing defeats. It is worthy to point out that after these two defeats, Hajjaj had some trouble gaining permission from the ruling Caliph Walid to try again, it was a general contention that the land of Sindh was of no value, and too far out on the edges of the empire for the Muslims. K.S. Lal writes in regards to the Caliphs opinion of the subcontinent,
“He dreaded the distance, the cost, the loss of Muhammaden life. From Damascus, Sind lay at a distance of two thousand five hundred kilometres”
According to Lal, Hajjaj obtained the reluctant permission of Caliph only after he promised to fund the venture entirely himself. Once permission was granted he dispatched Muhammad bin Qasim. This time Muhammed bin Qasim was able to overthrow the rulers of Sindh and establish control as well as reparation for the 8 ships that were attacked. However in retro-spect it is likely that the real reasons for invading Sind were not just the attack of the King of Ceylon’s ships but also to secure the trade routes for the future.
It is highly possible that the cast system that had developed and become rooted in society of the time had aided the Muslim advance into Sindh and thus aided the spread of Islam. Evidence suggests that the majority of population of the Sindh region were indifferent to the invasion, groups such as the Brahman priests, the rulers, the merchants and farmers were the only ones willing to fight. Also in the social structure of Indian society the Jats and the Meds were at the bottom. Various restrictions were imposed upon them which not only discriminatory but humiliating. Ironically though, Jats were hired by the Persian empire to fight the Muslims and when the Muslims entered Persia, Jats were used as mercenaries for the Muslims. Jats had a very proud Indian history, being mentioned not only in the Mahabharata, but according to some scholars they were the original inhabitants of Sind, and that they were important tribes during their times. Ibn Khurdabah mentions that they guarded the routes between Mansura and Kirman.
“The Jats claim to be included in the 36 royal Rajput tribes. Some of them state that their forefathers came from Ghanzi. But it is generally accepted that they are the descendants of the ancient Getae, or Jeutchi, from Scythia. Some authorities consider that they entered the sub-continent some time in 1500BC and are the same Jattikas mentioned in the Mahabharata, and also identical with the Jatti of Pliny and Ptolemy. Their original home was the Oxus”
Hence we see a group of people having a once glorious past, now at the bottom rung of society. Therefore here we see a process of Islamic invaders been seen as liberators, and a process of appreciation of the Muslims. Therefore it wouldn’t surprise one to find out that the Jat population on the whole joined forces with the Muslim invaders. To many scholars, it was the Jats joining the Muslims that was decisive in ensuring victory. The Jats gave much needed information regarding the territory and possible ways of achieving a Muslim victory.
“They had been forbidden to ride in saddles, wear fine clothes and to uncover the heads. This had embittered them to such an extent that they threw in their lot with the foreigner and joined his standard in large numbers”
Other reports suggest that they were forced to walk with dogs so other people could know of their presence. The region also had a healthy population of Buddhists, although at the time they would have been referred to as Shamanis or Samanis , who were reluctant to fight due to their pacifist beliefs. They therefore were eager to show submission to the Muslim invaders. Some however go further to say that Buddhists had been in contact with their people in areas of Afghanistan and Turkistan, and the Buddhists of that region had commented on how liberal their new Muslim rulers were. Whatever the true reason as to why Buddhists submitted to the Muslims is debatable, however evidence does suggest that the Buddhist Rajas of Hyderbad had covert communications with Muhammed bin Qasim, along with the Buddhist Rajas of Sewastan. Finally couple all this with the fact of the unpopularity of the king of Sind, Raja Dahir.
“He was considered a usurper’s son. Sind had become independent after the great Harsha’s death. It was ruled by Shudra Kings and Brahman Ministers. After the death of the last Shudra king, Sahasi, his throne was seized by his Brahman minister Chach. Raja Dahir was the son of Chach. The ruling family had hardly held the kingdom for a few decades when Muhammad bin Qasim attacked it”
We therefore see three major reasons as to the success of the invasion of Islam into the region. However as we have established earlier, invasion alone does not determine the spread of Islam. Even though much support would have been gained from the Jats and the Buddhists. The next stage in the process of the spread of Islam is how Muhammed bin Qasim ruled the region.
The early period of Muhammed bin Qasim’s reign was very tolerant according to most historians. He appointed Hindus to administer various aspects of the territory, and similar to the method of the British in India, left various Hindu principalities the way they were.
“The religious life of the Sindhis more or less kept its old tenor. The temple of Brahmanabad was rebuilt , and old customs of worship permitted. The people were urged to give up fear provided they remain loyal. Once things got thus settled, the Brahmans who had become tired and dispossessed, too were not unwilling to cooperate and serve the invader.”
Therefore due to the plurality of Muhammed bin Qasim’s policy (again reminiscent of Asoka and the influence of Buddhism) would have given the people of the North of India a favourable impression of the Muslims, especially as the Jats would have seen them as liberators, and the Buddhists as fair rulers. This in itself would have helped promote Islam and aide its spread. Therefore we see a process of recognition of outside Muslim rulers as being fair and just from the Buddhists, then we see an invasion and the use of force, and an alliance with certain Buddhist rulers and a large amount of Jats, which morphs the invasion to liberation for some residents of the area, and upon victory we see early just ruler-ship, and the re-instatement of non-Muslim officials. This process would have influenced people to take at least an interest into Islam, and just like trade, intermarriage, friendships and family alliances would have developed.
“The Arabs believed in pursuing a policy of toleration, partial if not complete. This tolerance was doubly blessed. It helped Sindhis live in peace and amity with the newcomers. Much more it helped the Arabs to learn much from the Indo-Aryan culture.”
It is similary documented that the Muslims when they arrived literally sat at the feet of Buddhist and Hindu teachers to learn from them. And hence we see, just as with the pre-Islamic history of India, a new connection with a new Muslim Empire was forged. So much so that the Caliph Mansur invited many Hindu scholars to his court
However just as Muhammed bin Qasim’s early rule would have influenced the spread of Islam, there are contradictory reports regarding the latter part of his rule. Some reports suggest that eventually he came to hold similar opinions regarding the Jats as the Brahmans did by forcing the strict conditions that the Hindus did. It is very likely that these reports are true, as by that time many Brahmans had been given positions in government, and their old ways would have been implemented. Depending on how quickly the population opened up to Islam one cannot determine whether this had any adverse effects. If the population became receptive to Islam early on, it is likely that Qasim’s questionable latter policies would have not affected Islam’s spread, rather the new Muslims would have likely seen him as a corrupted, or even blamed the Brahmans for influencing him. If however Muhammed bin Qasim’s change in policy towards the Jats was before Islam had a chance to open up to the populous, then it is likely it slowed the spread of Islam. Evidence suggests that Islam spread was infact slowed by Qasim’s latter policies and other reasons. It is written that after Qasim’s departure from Sind chaos ensued. It got to such a grave point that Hakam bin Awanah (the new governer) founded a new city for Muslims to take refuge in 732 AD. In 737 AD a second city of refuge for the Muslims was also built.
“In Sind the recall of Mohammad Bin Qasim was followed by a Hindu reaction which almost wiped out the results of the first victories. When Hakam bin Awanah was appointed Governor of Sind, he found that the natives had rebelled and apostasized. He built two cities, Mahfuzah and Mansurah in the north and south of Sind, to provide places of security for Muslims.”
This therefore shows that the spread of Islam was seriously slowed and in many cases reversed due to the various conditions within Sindh and northern India. This can be understood from the perspective of the people who first saw the invaders as liberators, and in the end the established similar policies as to their original oppressors. It seems that all these early invasions merely introduced the region to Islam, it had no power to maintain it. Muhammed bin Qasim realized this and thus operated a more tolerant policy, however even his policies faltered towards the latter part of his governor-ship, and revolution ensued and the quelling of this revolution was required by latter governors. Therefore in the larger process of Islam’s spread in India it can be seen that the various invasions merely introduced Islam to the people, in some cases they did accept and in many they revolted. Invasion and early rule itself could not maintain Islam in these territories alone, and therefore other processes must have played a role.
On the other hand, there is an example of rule which most definitely promoted the spread of Islam. This would be at the start of the Mughal Dynasty and during the reign of Akbar the Great (1556-1605 AD) . Obviously by the time Akbar came along the people of India had been almost entirely exposed to Islam, through invasion, through rule, through trade and through mysticism. There wasn’t really much more Akbar could do than what was already done, apart from his method of rule and his policy towards those he ruled. Just like Muhammed bin Qasim’s early policies Akbar encouraged toleration. Akbar however was more enthusiastic in this method. Akbar has been attributed as the introducer of a new policy towards Hindus and non-Muslims in general. Akbar is known to have abolished the Jizya, which had been in place since Muslims first arrived in India. This had two effects upon the Hindus, one of which it was a show of reconciliation as a Muslim ruler offering this to his Hindu people. Secondly it allowed the Hindus to feel like legitimate citizens of the Empire, it also established a sense of equality between the Hindus and Muslims. Another policy he made was allowing any places of worship to be built, be they muslim or non-muslim, furthermore Akbar ordered the translation of many Hindu books into Persian to allow this literature to pass more easily into the Muslim world. Christians were similarly allowed to convert people in India. Unlike the earlier policies of Muhammad bin Qasim, muslim populations had grown rapidly by the time of Akbar and as a result many Hindus were prevented from holding government positions, Akbar returned back to the policies of Qasim in allowing non-Muslims to hold high government positions. Furthermore in the issue of law Akbar stopping the cases of Hindu being judged by Muslims and instead put in their place Brahman lawgivers. Yet again we see, just as with the Sufis, the early policies of Qasim, the teachings of Buddha and the policies of Asoka, an inclusive and pluralistic policy brought peace and stability and would have encouraged Islam to spread. It would also have allowed Islam to adjust to various melting pots of faiths, rather than simply import an Arab version of Islam. By this time most Arab societies were all Muslim, and hence their policies had no need to address non-Muslims. When the forums were thrown open for debate by Akbar, Islamic theology and law adapted and changed, instead of blood-shed between faiths and even sects within single faiths, there was discussion.
Conclusion
In my opinion it is clear that the spread of Islam in India was a process that contained many sub-processes. War and invasion alone could clearly not spread Islam and as evidence has shown resulted in many uprisings and the quelling of uprisings, however we should not discount war as a sub-process in the spread of Islam. What we can conclude is that with the case of India, no one process could have spread Islam alone, war could simply not sustain itself especially in the light of a change in power from Ummayids to Abbasids. Similarly with trade, it was another sub-process that was a compliment to other processes, and the same could be said of the Sufis. All in all, it was the combination of all these processes that enabled Islam to spread in India, one could conclude that the reason for this is that India was not a single empire under one ruler, it was a combination of many states, many kings and many leaders, each with their own personal thinking, ideas and goals. The combination of trade, Sufism, invasion and rule together allowed Islam to establish itself and sometimes spread slowly, sometimes flourish.